1. INTRODUCTION:

Abundant uses of chemicals and herbicides have made our soil sick and problematic. According to the demand of growing population, the productions of agricultural products have been enhanced through the use of chemicals. The long-term use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides etc. lead to imbalance of our natural ecosystems and have made our soils sick and problematic (Gupta 2005; Tohidinejad et al., 2011). Use of chemicals, herbicides and fertilizers in the agricultural field were caused deleterious effect in soil organisms (Meena, 2007). It affects the texture and physico-chemical properties of soil, which resulted loss of certain micro-organisms and worms in the soil (Mall et al., 2005). In India, the integration of crops and livestock and use of organic manure (derived from livestock excreta) as fertilizer were traditionally the basis of farming systems. But development of chemical industry during the green revolution period created opportunities for low-cost supply of plant nutrients and control in weeds in inorganic forms which lead to rapid displacement of such organic manures. The deterioration of soil fertility through loss of nutrients, dead of soil micro and macro flora quickly and organic matter, erosion and salinity, and pollution of environment are the negative consequences of modern agricultural practices (Garg et al., 2006). In shore area, directly or indirectly affected the population of earthworms due to these pollutions.

The need to produce more food for the ever increasing world population especially in the developing economics requires extensive use of agrochemicals such as pesticides and herbicides with its attendant effect on non-target soil like the earthworm (Stanley et al., 2010). Herbicides were first mass-produced in the early 1950s for the deliberate application to the environment for the control of weeds in agriculture, silviculture, right-of-ways, and turf lawns (Giannessi and Reigner, 2007).

Herbicides were first research and discover in both the UK and the US in the 1940s. Formulations include esters, acids, and several salts, which vary in their chemical properties, environmental behavior, and to a lesser extent, toxicity (WHO, 1989; RED, 2005).When it was commercially released in 1946, it became the first successful selective herbicide and allowed for greatly enhanced weed control in wheat, maize (corn) rice and similar cereal grass crops because it kills dicots (broad leaf plants) but not most monocots (grasses). The low cost of 2,4-D has led to continued usage today and it remain one of the most commonly used acid herbicides in world like other herbicides current formulations use either an amine salt.

Butachlor (2-chloro-2’, 6’-diethyl-N-(butoxymethyl) acetanilide) is used for the control of undesirable grasses and broadleaf weeds in transplanted direct seeded paddy and barley fields. It is a member of the chloroacetanilide class of chemistry. Butachlor was the first rice herbicide to be introduced in India. The application of huge amount of herbicides, affect not only target plants they are used to destroy but also other non-targeted ones. Some herbicides cause a range of health effects ranging from skin rashes to death. The pathway of attack can arise from intentional direct consumption, improper application resulting in the herbicide coming into direct contact with people or wildlife, inhalation of aerial sprays, or food consumption prior to the labeled pre harvest interval. Under some conditions, certain herbicides can be transported via leaching or surface runoff to contaminate groundwater or distant surface water sources. The risk of Parkinson’s disease has been shown to increase with occupational exposure to herbicides and pesticides. Herbicides have been adverse effect the survival of earthworms (Van-Gestrel and Van Dis 1988; Ribidoux et al; 1999) as well as its growth and reproduction (Helling et al; 2000; Zhou et al; 2007; Corriela and Moreira, 2010).

Earthworms are considered as one of the most important biotic components of the soil because their role in mineralization and breakdown of organic matter which results formation of soil structure and humus soul for maintains the soil fertility. Earthworms are one of the best bio-indicator of pesticides contamination in soil also. Due to high concentration of organo-chemical at upper surface layer of soil, reduced earthworms activities in their habit and habitat (Keogh and Whitehead, 1975; Cock et al., 1980). Earthworms show the high biomass of terrestrial invertebrates which play an important role in structuring and increasing the nutrient content of the soil. Therefore, they can be suitable bioindicators of chemical contamination of the soil in terrestrial ecosystems providing an early warning of deterioration in soil quality (Culy and Berry, 1995; Sorour and Larink, 2001). The suitability of earthworms as bioindicators in soil toxicity is largely due to the fact that they ingest large quantity of the decomposed litter, manure, and other organic matter deposited on soil, helping to convert it into rich topsoil (Reinecke and Reinecke, 1999; Chauhan and Singh, 2012a). In this context, recycling of available biogas of different sources is helpful and can reduce the environmental pollution. Earthworms are often used as test organism because of their important function as decomposer and their sensitive reaction towards environmental influence. In terrestrial ecosystem, earthworms are so important experimental organism for ecotoxicity one of major reason that it show high growth and reproduction rate.

Earthworm directly influence the persistence of herbicides in soil by metabolizing a parent compound in their gut by transporting herbicides to depth and increasing the soil bound (non- extractable herbicides) fraction in soil or by absorbing herbicides residues in their tissues. Several other studies have demonstrated the lethality of herbicides and pesticides to earthworm and their histopathological effect (Gupta and Sundaranean, 1988; Gobi et al., 2004; Rombke et al., 2007). The earthworms known as ecological engineer because they have potency to fertile soil nature by anthropogenic activities (Lavelle et al., 1997; Brown et al., 2000); additional used as industrial wastes convert into valuable product (Garg et al., 2005; Ananthakrishnasaw et al., 2009); composting of toxic weeds (Chauhan and Joshi, 2010) and also removal of harzardous metals (Bhartiya and Singh, 2011). The earthworm can minimize the pollution hazard caused by organic waste degradation and soil became healthy and fertile.

2. HERBICIDES:

Herbicides, also commonly known as weed killers, used to kill unwanted plants (Kellogg, 2000). Selective herbicides kill specific targets, while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed. Some of these act by interfering with the growth of the weed and are often synthetic mimics of natural plant hormones. Herbicides used to clear waste ground, industrial sites, railways and railway embankments are not selective and kill all plant material with which they come into contact. Smaller quantities are used in forestry, pasture systems, and management of areas set aside as wildlife habitat. Some plants produce natural herbicides, such as the genus Juglans (walnuts), or the tree of heaven; such action of natural herbicides, and other related chemical interactions, is called allelopathy. Herbicides are widely used in agriculture and landscape turf management. In the US, they account for about 70% of all agricultural pesticide use (Kellogg, 2000). Contact herbicides destroy only the plant tissue in contact with the chemical. Generally, these are the fastest acting herbicides. They are less effective on perennial plants, which are able to regrow from rhizomes, roots or tubers. Systemic herbicides are translocated through the plant, either from foliar application down to the roots, or from soil application up to the leaves. They are capable of controlling perennial plants and may be slower-acting, but ultimately more effective than contact herbicides.

According to Riepert et al. (2009) the acute earthworm test is part of the basic test set, but the earthworm reproduction test is considered ecologically more relevant. Therefore, growth and reproduction have been recommended as useful sub-lethal criteria (Van Gestel et al., 1992; Paoletti et al., 1999). Mortality has been the most frequently used parameter to evaluate the chemical toxicity in earthworms (Van Gestel and Van Dis, 1988, 1889). Moreover, studies have shown that earthworm’s skin is a significant route of contaminant uptake (Lord et al., 1980) and thus investigation of earthworm biomarkers in the ecological risk assessment (ERA) can be helpful (Sanchez-Hernandez et al., 2006). It is postulated, however, that survival is less sensitive from an ecotoxicological point of view (Moriarty, 1983). The acute mortality tests would not provide the most sensitive risk estimate for earthworms in the majority (95%) of cases (Frampton et al., 2006). Amorim et al. (2005) tested with herbicide Phenmedipham against earthworm and found that reproduction to be a more sensitive end point than mortality in Enchytraeus albidus and Enchytraeus luxuriosus. It is suggested that the chronic test, aiming at sub-lethal effects, is more sensitive and is a more realistic approach for the prediction of environmental effects because in the field, the exposure concentrations of pesticides are usually quite low (Rombke et al., 2007).

3. EARTHWORM:

Earthworms are bilaterally symmetrical, metamerically segmented invertebrate, cylindrical, soft bodies covered with delicate cuticle devoid of chitin. They are mostly terrestrial (soils horizon) and burrow into moist soil. During feeding and digestion the earthworms act as an aerator, chopper, crusher, chemical degrader and a biological stimulator (Sinha et al., 2002). The essential nutrients such as potassium and phosphorus are brought to the surface layers of the soil by this action induced by earthworms. Nitrogen and some of its products can enter to the layer under the soil.

Humankind has the knowledge from ancient time about the ability of earthworm to transform the organic wastes in to value added product with soil fertilizing capabilities. In 1881, Charles Darwin’s regarded as the first modern scientific study of the beneficial role of earthworm in soil ecology. Darwin called earthworms ‘‘Ploughs of the earth’’ because of their ability to eat soil and eject it as worm castings. Darwin estimated that 10 to 18 tons of dry soil passes through earthworms’ guts every year on farmland and he claimed that earthworms were one of the most important creatures in the ecosystem. Aristotle named earthworms ‘territory intestines’ in 330 BC, he believed that soil was an organic entity and earthworms played an important role in maintaining the life of soil. whereas, Charles Darwin showed how earthworms enhance soil fertility by turning the soil due to its activity after 22 centuries. Unfortunately, people thought that earthworms eat roots of plants and destroy crops, and thus they suggested earthworms be eliminated in 4th quarter of 19^th Century. The United State of America in the early part of the 20^th century was regarded for the beginning of vermicomposting. By the late 1940s, earthworm growths were promoted as an effective method for farmers to improve their soil fertility on the basis of scientific use of vermicomposting (Bouche, 1977).

Indian study showed that earthworm population of 0.2-1.0 million per hectare of farmlands can be established within a short period of three months. On an average 12 tons/hectare/year of soil or organic matter is ingested by earthworms, leading to upturning of 18 tons of soil/year, and the world over at this rate it may mean a 2 inches of fertile humus layer over the globe (Bhawalkar and Bhawalkar, 1993). Undoubtfully, Sir Charles Darwin called them as the ‘unheralded soldiers of mankind and farmer’s friend working day and night under the soil (Satchell, 1983; Martin et al., 1976).

Only a few decades ago, the predominating thought was that earthworms were not very important for agriculture. Emphasis was placed on physical and chemical aspects of plant growth while biological aspects were neglected. We are now realization how interaction between crops climates, soil and living organism play important roles in the sustaining our agriculture. Earthworms are among the most visible of soil organism and have received considerable attention. The earthworms represented a major proportion of total biomass of terrestrial invertebrates up to 80% which play an important role in ingestion of large quantity of decomposed litter, manure and other organic matter and convert it into rich top soil (Sandoval et al., 2001). Earthworms are regarded as a reference compartment to observe soil contaminant bioavailability and are used to evaluate the lethal and sub lethal effects of chemicals contaminants and pollutants (Rida and Bouche, 1997). They play a pivotal role in maintaining the productivity of our in maintaining the productivity our soil .this makes understanding these lowly animals and finding ways to make them thrive very important.

The repeated and discriminate use of herbicides, careless handling accidental spillage or discharge of untreated effluents into agricultural fields has harmful effects on the earthworm Eutyphoeus waltoni and other terrestrial organism. Acute and chronic toxicity tests are widely used to evaluate the toxicity of chemicals on non- target organisms (Santos et al., 2010). The abundance and activity of earthworm in arable lands depends strongly on management practices; therefore, earthworms can act as potential bioindicators of land use practices (Suthar, 2009). The toxicity of pesticides to soil organisms depends on the compound bioavailability, which is affected by the physicochemical properties of the compound and the soil, and by the uptake routes of exposed organisms. Therefore, ecotoxicity studies can benefit from using experimental designs that for local exposure condition in the field (Filser et al., 2008). Vermicastings have led to significant increases in the yields of several crops, with significant reductions in pesticide use and almost zero chemical fertilizer inputs (Dash and Senapathi, 1986). Lin et al. (2000) reported that increase in sunlight enhanced photo degradation of butachlor in water and that the half life of the herbicide in non- filtered river water was shorter than filtered samples.

The burrowing and feeding activity of earthworm have numerous beneficial effects on the overall soil quality for crop production can be improved by earthworm (Chauhan, 2013). Earthworms can contribute extensively to soil formation through consumption of dead plant and animal matter, mixing of the particles during digesting, depositing their casts throughout the soil column and improving aeration and drainage of the soil burrowing (Kavitha et al., 2011). Earthworms are also important contributors to the recycling of carbon and nitrogen in the ecosystem. This makes them one of the most suitable bioindicator organisms for testing chemicals in the soil (Callahan, 1988; Goats, 1988). Earthworm castes have higher available nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, calcium content than surrounding soil as well as a higher cation-exchange capacity. Some micronutrients, such as zinc and boron are more available in the excrement of earthworms through chelation of the micronutrients. Soil passed through gut of earthworm has a neutral pH. This probably due to the pH buffering action of organic molecules produced in the gut of worms. Earthworms excrete material that has concentration of beneficial microbes that help decompose crop residue.

There are distributed all over world 3,320 species of earthworms (Bhatnagar and Palta, 1996). In India, there are about 590 species of earthworms (Julka et al., 2009) with different ecological preferences, but the functional role of the majority of the species and their influence on the habitat are lacking. Most of the earthworms are terrestrial organisms, but some species like Pontodrilus burmudensis lead a comfortable life in estuarine water. Taxonomic studies on the Indian earthworm’s species have been carried in nineties by Julka (1983). Earthworms vary greatly in size, in India some peregrine species like Microscotex phosphoreus (Duges) are even 20 mm long while some endemic geophagous worms such as Drawida grandus (Bourus) may reach up to one meter in length (Sharma et al., 2011).

Earthworms have millions of microbes in their gut which help in nitrogen-fixation and decomposition of feeding material (Garg et al., 2005, Chauhan and Singh, 2012b). Earthworms also produce intestinal mucus as a byproduct in large amount which is composed of glycoproteins, small glucosidic and proteanic molecules. The microbes not only mineralize the complex substances into plant-available form but also synthesize a whole series of ‘biologically active’ substances. Earthworms have played a great role in monitoring soil structure and fertility because they may increase the mineralisation and humification of organic matter by food consumption, respiration, and may indirectly stimulate microbial mass and activity as well as the mobilisation of nutrients by increasing the surface area of organic compounds (Edwards and Fletcher, 1988; Lavelle and Spain, 2001). On the basis of these morpho-ecological characteristic earthworms have be classified into three categories (Bouche 1977). These categories are epigeic, endogeic and anecic.

3.1 Epigeic:

Epigeic species are essentially litter dwellers, habitat is in organic horizons and near the surface litter. They are phytophagous and voracious feeder ingesting large amount of undecomposed litter. These species produce ephemeral burrows into the mineral soil for periods of diapause, so their activities and effects are limited primarily to the upper few centimeters of the soil-litter interface. Species in this group include Lumbricus rubellus Hoffmeister, Eisenia foetida (Savigny), Eisenia Andrei Bouche, Dendrobdena rubida (Savigny), Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg,), Perionyx excavates Perrier, and Eiseniella tetraedra (Savigny).

3.2 Anecic

Anecic earthworm species live in more or less permanent vertical burrow systems which may extend several meters into the soil profile. They cast at the soil surface and emerge at night to feed primarily on surface litter, manure and other partially decomposed organic matter which they pull down into their burrows. Anecic earthworms, intermediate on the r and k scale (Satchell, 1980), are very important agents in organic matter decomposition, nutrient cycling, and soil formation, accelerating the pedological processes in soils worldwide. Lumbricus terrestris Linnaeus, and Allolobophora longa are included in this ecological group.

3.3 Endogeic

Endogeic earthworms live deeper in the soil profile and feed primarily on both soil and associated organic matter i.e. geophagous. They have little pigmentation and they generally construct horizontal, deep branching burrow systems which are filled with cast material as they move through the organic-mineral layer of the soil. Earthworms of this type are k-selected species (Satchell, 1980) that require a long time to achieve their maximum weight and appear to be more tolerant of starvation than epigeic species (Lakhani and Satchell, 1970). These species are apparently of no major importance in litter incorporation and decomposition since they feed on subsurface material and are important in other soil formation processes, including root decomposition, soil mixing, and aeration. Species such as Allobophora caliginosa, Allobophora rosea and Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny) are included in this group.

Endogeic earthworms are moderate sized live below the surface and feed on organic rich soil. These are burrowing worms and build continuously ramifying horizontal burrows. These species rarely come to the surface. These species have intermediate duration life span and their reproduction rate is very low. They play major role in other soil formation process such as soil mixing and aeration eg. Eutyphoeus waltoni, Octochaetona thurstoni, and Drawida barwelli.

3.4 Eutyphoeus waltoni:

Throughout India (Punjab, Sikkim, Jharkhand, Himanchal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh) and generally found in cultivated field, garden, grassland, groundnut field, millet field, paddy field, sugarcane field and vegetable field. The cast is tower-like and body brown in colour Length 100-210 mm, diameter 4.5 - 6.5 mm, body segments 190 – 210, body colour brownish to violet-grey dorsally. Dorsal pores from 12/13 or 11/12. Setae rather smaller, paired but not closely. Clitellum ring shaped, but thinner ventrally, 1/2xiii-xvii. Septum-7 is the first and being thickened. Septa, calciferous glands, and vascular system as usual in mentandric species. From the eighth to the twelfth segment also the internal and external segmentation do not correspond; and septum-9 is actually situated in segment x as delimited externally by the furrows, if not on a level with groove; Gizzard large. Intestine begins in xiv. Penial setae upto 4.7 mm long, curved to form about a quarter circle (Singh and Kumar, 2014).

Earthworms are hermaphrodite, having both male and female sex organ but in general they need to the same species to produce off springs due to different maturation periods of sperm and ova. Eutyphoeus waltoni when sexually mature they develop a noticeable swollen band on their body, called the clitellum and after mating they roll a band of mucus from this organ, off their bodies forming a roughly spherical cocoon from which off spring hatch, after mating each worm produce cocoons .some species produce only one/two hatching per cocoon. Earthworm can breed throughout the year under ideal condition, but cocoon out-put is known to decrease rapidly after a period of prolific production. For example in sewage sludge Eisenia fetida reproduction for around one year but maximum cocoon production occurred when the earthworm were 9-11 weeks old and declined significantly throughout. Singh and Kumar (2014) reported that the earthworm Eutyphoeus waltoni found abundantly in agricultural fields of different localities of eastern Uttar Pradesh. Eutyphous waltoni is the standard test organism used in terrestrial ecotoxicology because it can easily feed on a variety of organic wastes. Eutyphoeus waltoni is sensitive to the herbicide and their mortality rate is dose and time dependent. The significance of different combination and exposure time in assessing the hazards of the herbicide butachlor to earthworm Eutyphoeus waltoni.

4. FACTORS AFFECTING EARTHWORM DEVELOPMENT:

The abiotic and biotic factors are affects the growth and reproduction of Eutyphoeus waltoni. The most important abiotic factors include combination of different organic wastes, aeration, pH, temperature, moisture, C:N, ratio etc. However, food material play significant role in development and reproduction (Fayolle et al ., 1997; Chauhan and Singh, 2013).

Earthworm commonly found in agriculture fields thrive at neutral pH but can tolerate a pH from 5.0 to 8.0. The pH is important parameters which greatly influence the vermicompost process. Breakdown of organic matter during vermicomposting release carbon dioxide and volatile fatty acid that tend to decrease the pH (Kaushik and Garg, 2004, Chauhan and Singh, 2012b, 2013, 2014). Suthar (2008) has reported that shift in pH could be due to microbial decomposition during the process of vermicomposting. Bioconversion of organic materials into intermediates species may also another factor for the decrease of pH during vermicomposting (Ndegwa et al., 2000). Singh and Chauhan (2015) reported that the combination of buffalo dung with wheat straw gram bran is the best combination for the better growth and development of Eisenia fetida.

The optimum temperature range for earthworm during vermicomposting process is 12-28°C. The worm activities are significantly influence by temperature. During winter to remain system active, the temperature should be maintained above 10⁰C and in summer the temperature should be maintained below 35⁰C (Ismail, 1997). At very low temperature earthworm do not consume food. At higher temperature (above 35 °C) metabolic activity and reproduction of earthworm begins to decline and mortality occurs (Riggle and Holmes, 1994). Tolerance and preference for temperature vary from species to species. Drawida japonica tolerates low temperature among of 4⁰C other species associated with low soil temperature are Octolasion tyrtaeum. Eisenia fetida (10.5⁰C). Eisenia fetida tolerate higher temperature of 32⁰C as prevalent in dung heap.

The moisture contents of organic material feed to earthworms can greatly affect growth and reproduction but it is impossible to be precise about the optimum level. In general, earthworms prefer material that is fairly damp in the range 70-80% moisture (UTWRC, 2003). Singh et al. (2005) studied the optimum moisture requirement during vermicomposting by Perionyx excavatus. Earlier study showed that the upper limit of moisture for Eisenia foetida for 80.61%.Most of the species, however prefer 24-31% moisture level (Paliwal and Julka, 2009).

The earthworms are aerobic organism and need oxygen for vital activity which is important for growth and development, reproduction of the earthworm. Poor aeration during vermicomposting system may arise due to high moisture greasy and oily wastes in the vermibed (Yadav and Garg, 2011). There to allow enable better aeration during adverse condition of vermicomposting, either mechanical means of aeration or manual turning is employed (Ismail, 1997; Yadav and Garg, 2011).

The suitable feed material for earthworm is primary need in the vermicomposting process. Earthworm can consume almost anything that is organic in nature. The amount of food that can be consumed daily by earthworm varies with a number of factors such as particle size of food. The effect on development and reproduction of earthworm Eisenia fetida was studied under laboratory condition by using different animals dungs viz. cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, horse etc. (Garg et al., 2005; Chauhan and Singh, 2012a, 2013, 2014). Edward et al. (2004) observed that the growth and reproduction are influence by organic wastes as food. Loh et al. (2005) reported the vermicomposting of cattle and goat manure by Eisenia foetida and their effect on the development of worms. Gunadi and Edward (2003) studied growth fecundity and survival of Eisenia foetida in different organic wastes. Investigation by Mba (1996) highlighted the ability of Eudrilus eugeniae to partially detoxifly the wastes and convert the toxic cassava peels into valuable vermicompost. The feed should have less than 0.5% salt contents (Gunadi et al., 2002).

Earthworms are photophobic in nature (Edward and Lofty, 1972). So they should be kept away from light short exposure from sun light causes partial to complete paralysis and long exposure are lethal to earthworm. Various biotic factors which affect vermicomposting process include earthworm stocking density and enzyme. Earthworms are known to play most important role in the vermicomposting system where they modify microbial communities and nutrients dynamics (Edward and Bohlen, 1996). Population of earthworms (stocking density) in vermicomposting affects various physiological processes, such as respiration rate, reproduction rate, feeding rate and burrowing activity. Dominguez et al. (1977) have reported that a stocking density of eight earthworm (E. andrei) per 43.61g dry matter of pig manure is optimal for sexual development. High population densities of earthworm in vermicomposting system result in a rapid turnover of fresh organic matter into earthworm casts (Aira et al., 2006). Ndegwa et al. (2000) have reported on the optimal worm stocking density of 1.60 kg-worms/m² and an optimal feeding rate of 0.75kg- feed/kg-worm/day for vermicomposting. Frederickson et al. (1997) have also reported a significant reduction of Eisenia andrei as stocking density increased.

Some of enzyme involved in the vermicomposting process include celluloses, ᵝ-glucosidase which hydrolyse glucosides, amidohydrolase, proteases and urease involved in the N-mineratization and phosphatases that remove phosphate groups from organic matter. Enzyme activities have often been used as indicators of microbial activities and can also be useful to interpret the intensity of microbial metabolism in soil.

5. WASTE MANAGEMENT:

Earthworms play an important role in stabilization of inorganic plant nutrients into organic form and increase the soil fertility (Ranganathan, 2006). The worms added their cost with compost and increase the inorganic nutrients many times along, with some plant growth hormones and vitamins (Atiyeh et al., 2000).Bhartiya and Singh (2011) reported that the heavy metals such as a cobalt, chromium, cadium lead, arsenic (Co, Cr, Cd, Pb, As) accumulated by earthworm Eisenia foetida and after vermicomposting increased metals in earthworm body. Vermicomposting was started in 1970 in Ontario (USA) and produced vermicompost 75 ton per week. American earthworm company began a form in 1978-79 with about 500 ton capacity per month. Thereafter has started in other countries. Such as Italy, Philippines, Canada. Vermitechnology adoption in preparing of vermicompost started in India very recently in small and industrial level (Aalok et al., 2008).

In India Kale and Bano (1988) are the first to promote the commercial culture of earthworm for the production of organic manure, and since that vermiculture has established itself commercially in several parts of the country. Earthworm provide micro-climate environment and promotes the growth of aerobic decomposer , bacteria in their gut and also act as an aerator, grinder, crusher, chemical degrader and a biological stimulator (Binet et al., 1998; Singleton et al., 2003).

Vermicompost is an eco-friendly aerobic, less expensive, biological process where organic wastes are converted into homogeneous and stabilized vermicompost by earthworm. Vermicomposting is a living biotechnology processes in which earthworms are employed to convert the organic wastes into humus like material know as vermicompost. Nath and Singh (2011) reported that the applications of vermicompost with biopesticide increase the productivity of tomato crop upto four times with respect to control.

Vermicomposting after providing feeding substances increase the soil aggregation, improve air-water relationship, water-retentively and also improve several other physiochemical properties of soil (Webber, 1978; Epstein, 1997). The vermicomposting process promotes the colonization of a variety of decomposer organism (bacteria actinomycetes, algae, fungi and other microfauna etc. which directly and indirectly add enzymes and other valuable substances (hormone, vitamins in wastes decomposing system. Vermicomposting procures a better quality product than traditional composting system in term of nutrient availability also (Suthar, 2010).

Vermicomposts produced with such a biotechnology have been found to be superior in nutrients status than the traditionally prepared compost and contain several, vitamins, plant growth regulators, antibiotics etc. (Tilak et al., 2010). The physical action include fragmentation turnover and aeration where as biochemical action include enzymatic digestion, nitrogen enrichment transport of inorganic and organic material (Edward and Lofty, 1972).The earthworm have mutual relationship with micro-organism ingested for decomposition of organic matter present in their food (Satchell, 1983; Urbasek and Pizl, 1991).

Vermicompost process increase the mineralization rate of organic substance and nutrients, in the gut of worm and converted into the available forms, which consequently enrich the worm cast with higher quality plants nutrients (Gupta and Garg, 2007). During the vermicomposting there is a mineralization and stabilization of organic wastes substrates material with decreasing proportion of C:N ratio and calcium enhancement (Garg et al., 2005, Chauhan, 2013, Chauhan and Singh, 2012; 2013). Some earthworms are able to selectively digest certain micro-organism (Dash, 1978).

Vermicomposting is also the best option for the management of animal dung and agro-wastes by epigeic species. Nath and Singh (2011) reported that the use of vermicompost with plants product is more beneficial in organic forming. The greatest advantage over the conventional composting system is that the end product is more homogenous richer in plant-available nutrients and humus and significantly low contaminants. They are soft highly porous with greater water holding capacity (Sabin, 1978, Hartenstein and Hartenstein, 1981) Chauhan and Singh (2012b) reported that the binary combination of initial feed mixture of buffalo dung with wheat straw is better option for enhancement of earthworm’s population and potent the vermicomposts. The awareness of organic matter and concept of sustainable agriculture is gaining impetus among our farmer to produce good quality consumable agricultural products (Eastman et al., 2001).

The preferable feeding materials which enhance the rate of reproduction and growth collectively called vermiculture. Vermicomposting is important component of organic farming without much financial (Soytong and Soytong, 1996). In which they can convert bio-wastes into nutrients rich organic manure, as well as intensity the worm populations (Garg et al., 2005, Chauhan and Singh, 2012a, b). Earthworms have been recognized by farmers as beneficial to soil (Edward and Lofty, 1972). Earthworms are key biological agents in the degradation of organic wastes (Albonell et al., 1988). Vermicomposting technology using earthworm as versatile natural bio-indicators for effective recycling of organic wastes to the soil in an environmentally acceptable means of converting wastes into nutrition composts for crop production. Vermicomposting defined as a low cost technology system for processing or treatment of organic wastes. All aspects of the worm biology such as feeding habits, reproduction and biomass production potential must be earthworm successfully in vermiculture. Since the diversity of earthworm species varies with different soil type and different agro-climatic conditions.

Vermicompost has emerged as an effective biotechnology for decomposting wide range of organic wastes with the help of intestinal micro-organism of earthworm (Edward and Lofty, 1972; Kale, 1998). Vermicomposts is a homogenous, retain most of the original nutrients and has reduced level of organic contaminants with respects to initial feed mixture because they are degraded (Ndegwa et al., 2000). Various kinds of vermicompost accelerates plants growth and productivity due to organic matter stabilization, chelating and phyto-hormonal elements. Vermicomposts used as soil additives or as a components of green house beeding plants container media have improve seed germination, enhanced seeding growth and development, and increased productivity (Atiyeh et al., 2000).

Vermicomposts is a nutritive plants food rich in N.P.K macro and micro nutrients, beneficial soil microbes like nitrogen- fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi and are excellent growth promoters (Buckerfield et al., 1999). Kale and Bano (1988) reports as high as 7.3% of nitrogen (N) and 19.5% phosphorous as P₂O₅ in vermicomposts. Nelson (1965) and Tomati et al., (1987) reported presence of plants growth hormones such as auxins, cytokinine and gibberline in vermicompost. Vermicompost also contain enzyme like amylase, lipase, cellulose and chitinase (Chaocei et al., 2003). More significantly vermicompost contain humus which makes it markedly different from other organic fertilizer. It takes very long time for soil or any organic matter to decompose to form humus while earthworm is excreta contain humus. Without humus, plants cannot grow and survive. The humic acids in humus are essential to plants to extracts nutrients form soil, help, dissolve unresolved minerals to make organic matter ready for plants to use , stimulate root growth and helps plants to overcome stress. According Atiyeh et al. (2000) the vermicompost tended to be higher in “Nitrates” which is more bio- available form the nitrogen for plants. Suhane (2007) found that the total bacterial count was more than 10¹⁰ prer g of vermicompost it include, Actinomycetes, Azotobacter, Rhizobium, Nitrobacter and phosphate solubilizing bacteria ranges from 10² to 10⁶ per g of vermicompost.

The huge amount of agro-wastes and livestock produced annually that caused problems for human and animal, if did not proper management (Gupta, 2005).The large amounts of organic wastes are produced in intensive agriculture. Moreover, many animal wastes caused serious odour and pollution problem (Suthar, 2008).In India million tones of cattle dung i.e. buffalo dung 12.20, cow dung 11.6, and goat dung 0.70 kg/animal/day and agro/kitchen wastes are produced annually. The horse, goat and sheep wastes have noxious problems, if they are not managed properly (Hartenstein et al., 1979; Edwards, 1988; Nogales et al., 1999; Garg et al., 2005; Loh et al., 2005; Garg et al., 2006). These wastes caused various odour and environmental problems in the surrounding area (Mitchell, 1997; Wong and Griffiths, 1991; Reinecke et al.,1992; Edwards, 1988; Gunadi et al., 2002; Gunadi and Edwards, 2003). The methane which is green house gases emission from fresh dung of 8.22 to14.45 mg/day of Indian livestock. The annual methane emission estimates from dung was 3.00 to 5.4 kg (ICAR, 2010).

Loh et al. (2005) reported that biomass gain and cocoon production by epigeic earthworms was more in cattle waste than goat waste. Edward et al. (2004) observed that the growth and reproduction of Perionyx excavatus (Perr.) (Megascolecidae) as factors in different organic waste. Gunadi and Edward (2003) studied that the growth, fecundity and survival of Eisenia fetida in different organic wastes. The combination of animal dung with different agro wastes are the best suitable feed material for better growth and development of earthworm Eisenia fetida (Chauhan and Singh, 2013). The combination of buffalo dung with wheat straw and gram bran resulted in maximum biomass, weight and length (Nath et al., 2009, Chauhan and Singh, 2012b). The combinations of animal dung with different agro-wastes are a best suitable feed material for better growth and development of earthworm Eisenia fetida. The combination of buffalo dung with wheat straw and gram bran have maximum biomass, weight and length (Nath et al., 2009; Chauhan and Singh, 2012a; Kumar and Singh 2013).

Vermicomposting has been reported to be viable, cost effective and rapid technique for the management of the domestic animals as well as industrial wastes into valuable material (Wong and Griffith, 1991; Atiyeh et al., 2000; Eastman et al., 2001). It is clear from the above account that vermicomposting is a suitable way for conversion of wastes into rich organic manures which enhance the plant growth and its productivity. The use of endogeic earthworm will be minimized the pollution hazard caused by organic wastes degradation.

6. OTHER IMPORTANCE OF EARTHWORM:

Current researchers have identified several bio active compounds from earthworm having potential medicinal value that prevent inflammation (Balamurugan, 2006; Ismail et al., 1992) reduced tumour growth (Herzenjak et al., 1992) and blood coagulation (Herzenjak et al., 1998), cause lysis of clots (Popvic et al., 2001) and act as antibiotic and antifungal (Viallier et al., 1985). These substances were also observed to cure thrombotic disease, orthritis, diabetes mellitus, ischemic and pulmonary heart disease, lowering blood pressure, epilepsy schizophrenia, mumps, exzema, chronic lumbago, anemia, vertigo and digestive ulcer (Mihara et al., 1990; Jin et al., 2000; Qinqsui, 2003). Paralysis of limb (Wang et al., 2003). Eguchi et al. (1995) reported that earthworms are considered not only composting agents but also nature’s ploughs, aerators, moisture retainers, crushers, and biological agents. Vermicasting have led to significant increases in the yields of several crops, with significant reductions in pesticides use and almost zero chemical fertilizer imputes (Dash and Senapathi, 1986). Earthworm protein and its coelomic fluid were reported to have cytolytic, agglutinating, proteolytic, haemolytic, mitogenic, anti-pyritic, tumorstatic and antibacterial activities (Edwards and Bohlen, 1996; Liu et al., 2004; Cooper and Ecam, 2005; Balamurugan et al., 2007).

Earthworms play an important role in soil fertility and they are also important contributors to the recycling of carbon and nitrogen in the ecosystem and most suitable bio-indicator organisms for testing chemicals in soil (Edward and Lofty, 1972; Callahan, 1988; Goats, 1988; Cock et al., 1980; Gobi et al., 2004). On the basis of above these accounts, the aim of present investigation is to study the effect of different concentration of herbicides on the reproduction and development of earthworm Eutyphoeus waltoni.

7. EFFECTS OF HERBICIDES:

Herbicides affect various ways to earthworms as the feeding behavior, which was reflected in the weight loss and reproduction capacity (Venter and Reinecke, 1988; Busto-Obregon and Goicochea, 2002). Smith et al. (1992) reported that soil animals, especially earthworms, are one of the best bioindicators of pesticide contamination. The agrochemical concentration is higher in surface layers; earthworm activity is very much reduced in the soil surface layer (Keogh and Whitehead, 1975). Herbicides have widely variable toxicity. In addition to acute toxicity from high from exposure levels there is concern of possible carcinogenicity as well as other long-term problems, such as contributing to Parkinson’s disease.

Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed. Some of these act by interfering with the growth of the weed and are after synthetic mimics of natural plants hormones. Herbicides used to clear waste ground, industrial sites, railways and railway embankments are not selective and kill all plant material with which they come into contact. The need to produce more food for ever increasing world population especially in the developing economics requires extensive use of agrochemical which effect non- target soil fauna population (Stanley et al., 2010).

The continuous use of chemical herbicides leads to loss of soil fertility and soil organism. The most chemical doses are toxic to birds, mammals and worms. Earthworms directly influence the persistence of herbicides in the soil. The doses of herbicides have significant effect to environment and public health. Neuhauser et al. (1979) observed that the food availability and population density have affected the sexual maturation in earthworms. Several other studies have demonstrated the lethal activity of herbicides and pesticides on earthworms and histopathological effects (Gupta and Sundaraman 1988; Sorour and Larink 2001; Lydy and Linck 2003; Gobi et al., 2004; Rombke et al., 2007; Mosieh 2009).

The use of specific herbicides, fungicides, insecticides in the agricultural field can be highly toxic to earthworm population (Williamson, 2000; Zhou et al., 2007). The exclusive major role of earthworms in paedogenesis through mixing of the particles during digesting, depositing their casts throughout the soil column, and improving aeration and drainage of the agricultural soils (Kavitha et al., 2011). Earthworms are also important contributors to the recycling of carbon and nitrogen in the ecosystem, so, they are used as bioindicators (Callahan, 1988). Yasmin and Souza (2007) have reported that pesticides influence the reproduction (cocoon production, a reduced mean and maximum number of hatchlings per cocoon and a longer incubation time) of worms in dose-dependent manner, with greater impact at higher concentration of chemical. Xiao et al. (2006) showed that acetochlor had no long term effect on the reproduction of Eisenia fetida at field dose. This mutagen contain dioxine, a group of chemicals known to be hazardous to human health and to the environment (Littorin, 1994). Herbicide use has increased dramatically around the world over the past 6 decades (Gianessi and Reigner, 2007). Few herbicides were in use in the 1950s. However, by 2001 approximately 1.14 billion kilograms of herbicides were applied globally for the control of undesireable vegetation in agricultural, silvicultural, lawncare, aquacultural, and irrigation/recreational water management activitie. Gianessi and Reigner (2007) observed that herbicides are routinely used on more than 90% of the area designated for large commercial crops including corn, soybeans, cotton, sugar beets, peanuts, and rice.

Herbicides have augmented advances in large-scale agricultural systems and have largely replaced mechanical and hand-weeding control mechanisms (Gianessi and Reigner, 2007). The wide-spread use of herbicides in agriculture has resulted in frequent chemical detections in surface and groundwaters (Gilliom, 2007). The majority of herbicides used are highly water soluble and are therefore prone to runoff from terrestrial environments. In additon, spray drift and atmospheric deposition can contribute to herbicide contamination of aquatic environments. Lastly, selected herbicides are deliberately applied to aquatic environments for controlling nuisance aquatic vegetation.

7.1 Effects on earthworms:

Generally, herbicides manifest low toxicity on earth worms, but indirectly can produce the reduction of the populations by decreasing the organic matter input and weed coverage. Earthworms can contribute extensively to soil formation through consumption of dead plant and animal matter, mixing of the particles during digesting, depositing their casts throughout the soil column and improving aeration and drainage of the soil burrowing (Kavitha et al., 2011). Earthworms are also important contributors to the recycling of carbon and nitrogen in the ecosystem. This makes them one of the most suitable bioindicator organisms for testing chemicals in the soil. Toxicity of chemicals varied in earthworms as various factors i.e. temperature, concentration, contacts to earthworms, soil and soil texture etc. Maximum toxicity of sulfosulfuron in the sandy soil (Singh and Singh 2015b).

Reproduction in earthworms is peculiar because of hermaphroditism (Kale et al., 1982, Julka. 1988) but occur cross fertilization due to protendrous condition for success full adaptation. Gobi and Gunasekaran (2010) reported that the percentage of clitellum development decreased with increasing concentration of butachlor. Use of specific herbicides, fungicides and insecticides in the agricultural field can be highly toxic to earthworm and they will suppress or nearly eliminated earthworm population (Williamson, 2000).

Soil environments are contaminated by the indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, which affect the soil flora and fauna population (Gobi and Gunasekaran, 2010). Earthworms were used as model experimental organisms for toxicity as well as bioaccumaltion assessment (Nusetti et al., 1999). Similarly Helling et al. (2000) reported that the fungicide copper oxychloride reduced cocoon production with increased concentration of fungicide in Eisenia fetida. Brown (1978) reported that some herbicides are directly toxic to earthworms while others have virtually no effects. Herbicides affect the feeding behavior of earthworms, which was reflected in the weight loss and reproductive capacity (Venter and Reinecke, 1988; Obregon and Goicochea 2002). Use of specific herbicides, fungicides and insecticides in the agricultural field can be highly toxic to earthworms and they will suppress or nearly eliminate earthworm population (Williamson, 2000).

7.2 Herbicide 2,4-D and its effects:

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) chemical name for the acid form is 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, its Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) registry number is 94-75-7, and the chemical family is the phenoxyacetic acid compounds (RED, 2005). The dimethyl-amine salt (DMA) and 2-ethylhexyl ester (EHE) forms account for approximately 90-95% of the total global use (Charles et al., 2001). The acid form is low in solubility and herbicide formulations consist of more soluble forms of the chemical. Singh and Singh (2014; 2015a) reported that the buffalo dung, wheat straw and gram bran combination was more potential for use in agricultural fields because it enhance the tolerance power Eutyphoeus waltoni against herbicide 2,4-D.

The 2,4-D is used for broadleaf weed control in agricultural and nonagricultural settings, and it is registered for use in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. Major sites include pasture and rangeland, residential lawns, roadways, and cropland. Crops treated with 2,4-D include field corn, soybeans, spring wheat, hazelnuts, sugarcane, and barley (RED, 2005).

The modes of toxicity to animals from the acid, ester and salt forms of 2,4-D are similar. The primary exception is that the salt and acid forms can be extreme eye irritants. 2,4-D is actively secreted by the proximal tubules of the kidney, and toxicity appears to result when renal clearance capacity is exceeded. Dose-dependent toxic effects include damage to the eye, thyroid, kidney, adrenals, and ovaries or testes. In addition, researchers have observed neurotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, and developmental toxicity (RED, 2005). Chlorophenoxy herbicides exhibit a variety of mechanisms of toxicity, including dose-dependent cell membrane damage leading to central nervous system toxicity. interference with cellular metabolism involving acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA), and uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation due to either the disrupted CoA (Bradberry et al. 2004).

The LD₅₀values range from 472 mg/kg for acute oral exposure in pheasants, to 668 mg/kg in pigeons and Japanese quail, to greater than 1000 mg/kg in wild ducks.1 The acute oral LD₅₀ for the dimethyl amine salt form of the compound was 500 mg/kg for bobwhite quail, and the acute oral LD₅₀ for the ethyl hexyl form was 663 mg/kg in mallard ducks. The acute oral LD₅₀ for wild ducks was in excess of 2025 mg/kg for the sodium salt form of 2,4-D. Five-day studies estimated LC₅₀ values for bobwhite quail and mallard ducks at greater than 5620 ppm. Chronic studies have also demonstrated low toxicity, with no effects observed below very high exposure levels such as concentrations in drinking water greater than the solubility of the chemical. Under field conditions, eggs of ground-nesting birds could be exposed, but eggshell permeability to 2,4-D is low and treating eggshells with high concentrations of 2,4-D did not reduce hatchability or cause chick abnormalities (WHO, 1989).

The greater toxicity generally of the esters in fish is likely due to the greater absorption rates of the esters through the gills, where they are hydrolyzed to the acid form. The acute LC₅₀ of the dimethyl amine salt form to rainbow trout was 100 mg/L, which is considered slightly toxic. The acute LC₅₀ of the ethyl hexyl form to rainbow trout was greater than its solubility in water. The LD₅₀value for the isoctyl form (CASRN 25168-26-7) in cutthroat trout was 0.5-1.2 mg/L, or moderately to highly toxic. Adult fathead minnows exhibited toxic effects at chronic exposures of the butoxyl ethanol ester form that were 1/10 to 1/45 of the 96-hour LC₅₀concentrations.

A variety of algal species exhibited LC₅₀ values ranging between 0.23 and greater than 30 mg/L for the ethyl hexyl form. The EC₅₀for the dimethyl amine salt form against Selenastrum capricornutum was estimated at 51.2 mg/L. A mesocosm study indicated that an unspecified form of 2,4-D applied at 0.117 mL/m2 had no negative effects on species richness, biomass, or survival on algae and 25 species of aquatic animals, including frog larvae, salamanders, snails, and a range of other invertebrates.53 Ninety-six-hour LC₅₀concentrations for several species of amphibian larvae exceeded 100 mg/L for the amine salt forms. 2,4-D is not considered hazardous to beneficial insects due to its low insecticidal activity and an adequate safety margin when products containing 2,4-D are used at recommended levels. Carabid beetles exposed to sand dosed with 1 g/m² exhibited greater than 50% mortality after 4 days. The calculated 48-hour LC₅₀ concentration for earthworms exposed to filter paper treated with 2,4-D was 61.6 μg/cm. Effects of 2,4-D on soil microorganisms were species-dependent (WHO, 1989; RET, 2005).

Correia and Moreira (2010) reported that 100 % mortality was observed a few hours after exposure of those organisms when exposed to 1000 mg/kg of 2,4-D. 2,4-D is toxic against earthworms (Roberts and Dorough, 1984; Donald et al., 1999). Brown (1978) also reported that some herbicides are directly toxic to earthworms. 2,4-D is a moderately persistent chemicals with a half life between 20, and 200 days.

7.3 Effects of 2,4-D on other organisms:

Unfortunately, the herbicide does not affect target weeds alone. It can cause low growth rates, reproduction problems, change in the appearance or behavior, or death in non-target species. 2,4-D was the most commonly detected pesticides although its concentration in wetlands exceeded the guideline in less than 1% of the wetland, these guideline are created in isolation, not accounting for the synergistic effects of pesticides. For example, Forsyth et al. (1997) found synergistic effect of picloram and 2,4-D on macrophytes. Due to numerious acceptable use of 2,4-D, it is likely that majority of watersheds in rural and urban Canada are contaminated. 2,4-D has been shown to have negative impacts on a number of groups of animals. In birds, 2,4-D exposure reduced hatching success and caused birth defects (Dufford et al., 1996). It is also indirectly affects birds by destroying their habits and food source.

The toxicity of 2,4-D to fish is variable, with the ester forms, 24-D expressing greater toxicity than other forms, 2,4-D has also been demonstrated to bio-accumulated in the fish (Wang et al., 1994). 2,4-D results in teratogenic delays in brain development and abnormal behavior pattern including apathy decreased social interaction repetitive movement, tremor and immobility (Evangelista de Dufford et al., 1996). In mammals, 2,4-D disrupts energy production (Zychlinkski and Zolnierowicz, 1990) depleting the body of its primary energy molecule, ATP (Adeniosine triphosphate) (Palmiera et al., 1994). 2,4-D has been shown to cause mutation which can lead to cancer. The herbicide 2,4-D has very toxic for growth and reproduction of earthworm Eisenia foetida (Helling et al., 2000; Zhou et al., 2007; Corriela and Moreira, 2010). The toxicity of 2,4-D to fish is variable, with the ester form of 2,4-D expressing greater toxicity than other forms. A product of the breakdown process of 2,4-D is dicholorophenol. Which is extremely toxic to earthworms, 15 times more toxic than 2,4-D itself (Roberts and Dorough, 1984). Numerious epidermiological studies have linked 2,4-D to non-hodgkins‘s lymphoma (NHL) among farmers (Zahm, 1997; Fontana et al., 1998; Morrison et al., 1992). Neurotoxic, immune-suppressive, cytotoxic and hepatoxic effects of 2,4-D have been well documented (Blakely et al., 1989;Sulik et al., 1998; Barnekow et al.,2000; Ross et al., 2000; Venkov et al., 2000; Charles et al., 2001; Madrigal-Bujadar et al., 2001; Osaki et al., 2001; Tuschl and Schwab, 2003). 2,4-D also interfers with the neurotransmitters and dopamine. In young organisms exposure to female are more severely affected than male rodent studies have revealed a region– specific neurotoxic effect on the critical neurotransmitters and adverse effect on behaviour (Bortolozzi et al., 2001). 2,4-D cause slight decrease in testosterone release and significant increase in estrogen release from testicular cells (Liu et al., 1996).

In rodents this chemicals also increase level of the hormones progesterone and prolactin and cause abnormalities in the estrus cycle (Dufford et al., 1996). Increase among infant who were conceived in the spring the time of greatest herbicides use (Garry et al., 1996). 2,4-D cause significant suppression of thyroid hormone levels in ewes dosed with this chemical (Rawlings et al., 1998). The researchers detected 2,4-D residues in stomach content, blood, brain and kidney of 4-day old neonates feed by 2,4-D exposed mother (Sturtz et al., 2000). 2,4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid is a low cost, easily available, and early and extensively effective used herbicide worldwide. Ville et al. (1997) reported that the 2,4-D has toxic effects on mammals, including neurological dysfunction, pulmonary oedema, hepatic and renal dysfunctions or symptoms of tetanus. Generally 2,4-D is used in agricultural fields for the purpose of controlling broad-leaf weeds (Munro et al., 1992). The toxicity of 2,4-D on earthworm Eutyphoeus waltoni in soil, because this herbicide has poor biodegradability, several metabolic alterations and tissue necrosis in non-target organisms, including important members of the food chain organisms, such as fish (Gallagher and Di Giulio, 1991; Chingombe et al., 2006). Gobi and Gunasekaran (2010) reported that percentage of clitellum development decreased with increasing concentration of butachlor.

7.4 Butachlor and its Effect:

Butachlor was the first rice herbicide to be introduced in India. It is chemically 2-chloro 2, 6 diethyl N, butoxymethyl acetanilide. The aqueous solubility of this substance is 20 mg/L (20°C), the partition coefficient (1-octanol/water) (log Kow) is 4.50, and the vapor pressure is 2.90×10 mmHg (=3.86×10Pa) (25°C). The half-life in soil due to biodegradability (aerobic degradation) is 42-70 days. The substance is not hydrolyzable (25°C, pH=3, 6, 9). It is primarily utilized as a herbicide. The production and import category under the PRTR Law is ≥10 t. Even in sublethal concentrations butachlor effects are multifold ranging from simple respiratory distress, accumulation, effecting the biochemical pathway at cellular neurological levels and finally culminating in inhibit ion/decrease of the neuromotor enzyme acetyl cholinesterase.

Butachlor was developed by Monsanto Co. (USA) and is a post-emergence herbicide that is commonly used in Asia and Africa to control a wide variety of grasses and some broadleaf weeds in paddy fields. Butachlor is thought to inhibit the synthesis of long chain fatty acids (Senseman, 2007). In Taiwan, more than 8,000 tons (active ingredient) of butachlor is applied annually (Taiwan Agrochemical Industrial Association 1996). Butachlor is also an indirect mutagen to hamsters and rats (Hsu et al., 2005). Prolonged exposure to butachlor was toxic to spotted snakehead fish (Channa punctata) and has been found to accumulate through the food chain (Tilak et al., 2007). Junghans et al. (2003) studied the effects of chloroacetanilides (acetachlor, alachlor, butachlor, dimethachlor, metazachlor, pretilachlor and propachlor) individually and in combination on the reproduction of the green algae, Scenedesmus vaculatus. Individually, chloroacetanilides impaired algal reproduction with EC50 values ranging from 3 to 232 mg The differences in EC50 values were strongly correlated with the lipophilicites of the compound synergistically. The acute toxicity of butachlor on earthworm Drawide willsi was determined by Smeeth and Sanjat (2002). The reported 96 hr LC50 values were 7.72 to 10.22 mg/kg for juveniles as well as for adults respectively. Suseela (2001) reported that the herbicide, as toxicant, did not have any adverse effects but it accelerated the nitrogen fixation. Wang et al. (1991) reported that the residues of butachlor in paddy field, even though lower than the safe concentration, caused toxic effect to Cyprinus carpio. The Butachlor is popular herbicides and its high doses are toxic to vertebrate animals to invertebrate’s worm too. Earthworms have been shown to be affected by the fate of herbicides in the soil.

Use of earthworms in ecotoxicological studies is common and a large database on pesticides effect on earthworms exist (Frampton et al., 2006), to field effects (Forster et al., 2006; Casabe et al., 2007; Reinecke and Reinecke, 2007). The herbicide acetochlor caused adverse effect on the sperm number and DNA of Eisenia fetida (Xiao et al., 2006). Butachlor has also been reported to be carcinogenic and can adversely disrupt the reproductive process and affect the thyroid and sex steroid hormones in Zerbra fish (Ou et al., 2000, Chang et al., 2011). Gobi et al. (2004) were found the glandular cell enlargement and vaccualization in the intestine of the earthworm Perionyx sansibaricus exposed to sub lethal concentration of herbicide butachlor. According to the Stephenson (1930) recovery could be brought by the chloragogen cells. Agricultural use of butachlor in the environment must be restricted to avoid the sever risk associate with the use of the herbicide butachlor.

Herbicides have widely variable toxicity in addition to acute toxicity from high exposure levels, there is concern of possible carcinogenicity (Morrison et al., 1992) as well other long term problems, such as contributing to Parkinson’s disease. Herbicides use generally has negative impacts on the bird population, although the impacts are highly variable and often require field studies to predict accurately.

8. CONCLUSION:

It is clear from above accounts, the vermicomposting is a suitable way for management of agro wastes into rich organic manures which enhance the plant growth and productivity. Vermicomposting also minimize the pollution hazard caused by organic wastes degradation. An Endogeic earthworm play important role in vermicomposting and enhances the soil fertility but abundant use of chemicals and herbicides affect decrease earthworm population. Herbicides have lethal effect against earthworm and decrease the population in soil habitat. The present study will be helpful to minimize the abundant use of herbicides in agricultural fields. The use of bio-herbicides are the best alturenative of chemical herbicides. The conservation of earthworm in their habitat is better for recycling of biological wastes in to rich nutrients manure. The use of vermicompost in agricultural fields is also helpful to macro organisms of soil habitat because it is eco- friendly and biotechnological tool for the earthworm population enhancement and proper wastes management.

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Received on 14.05.2016 Accepted on 08.06.2016

Int. J. Tech. 2016; 6(1): 31-48

DOI: 10.5958/2231-3915.2016.00007.9